master

• Installation
• Quick Start
• Manual
• Modules
• Examples

Introduction

Note that the following documentation may be in some cases incomplete and we'll try to improve it soon...

Biscuit Language (BL) is an experimental, general-purpose, compiled or interpreted programming language inspired by new C/C++ followers such as Odin, JAI and Zig. The main goal of the language is to create a simple, explicit and pleasant environment for programmers looking for something more abstract than C but not bloated as C++.

Due to this, some of the popular and common concepts are not supported in the language, i.e. there are no objects, complicated inheritance or exceptions in BL. However, some higher-level features such as polymorphic (template) functions, function overloading, runtime type information and compile-time execution are present.

BL compiler is open-source software (distributed under the MIT license) written in C. The compiler itself comes with a slowly growing Standard Library providing various functionality out of the box. The BL compiler uses LLVM backend to produce the final optimized executable.

Currently, all major 64-bit operating systems are supported (Windows, Linux and Mac), however, most of the language development is done on Windows and the compiler or Standard Library may be less reliable on other platforms.

The following sections of this document should guide you through the language from simple, fundamental basics to more complicated concepts. We suppose the reader is familiar with other programming languages such as C or C++ and does have some basic knowledge of how to use a terminal and other programming tools.

So let's start with Hello World program...

Hello World

In this chapter, we try to create a simple BL program printing out "Hello world!" message into the command line.

The Main Function

To start a new project, we simply need to create a file containing the main function used as an application entry point. So let's call our file hello.bl. Every BL executable requires the main function to be present in the program. Every main function is supposed to return s32 (32-bit signed number) as its result state.

The content of hello.bl can look like this:

main :: fn () s32 {
    print("Hello world!\n");
    return 0;
}

Print

Inside the function body, we call print function to print the passed string "Hello world!" into the standard output. The declaration of the print function looks like this:

print :: fn (format: string_view, args: ...) s32 {
    // ...
}

It's declared inside std/print module and it's available by default. From the declaration you can see it takes format and args as input arguments. The type of the format argument is compiler internal type string_view (representation of any string in the language); args argument type is ... which allows any number of additional values to be passed into the function.

Return

The last statement in the main function body is the return statement. The return statement, as in other languages, terminates the execution of the current function and provides some return value. In our case, it's just a 0.

Compile & Run

To compile our simple program, just type blc hello.bl into the terminal (in the directory containing hello.bl file). The new out.exe executable should be created next to your source file.

This way the BL compiler (called blc) can produce native executable binary for the platform you're running, however, since the BL code can be also interpreted, we can directly execute our program using the same blc command by adding -run parameter before the source file name: blc -run hello.bl. The main function from our example is executed without any native compiled binary creation needed.

The output should look like this:

blc -run hello.bl

Executing 'main' in compile time...
Hello world!
Execution finished with state: 0

Finished in 0.031 seconds.

Hello Project

As you maybe noticed from the previous example, our executable file was called out.exe, so what if we want to change the name without needing to do it manually after each recompilation? To fix this we need to feed the compiler with some additional settings; we need to create a configuration build file to do so.

One common approach to adjusting the build settings configuration is having some kind of build system involved in the language ecosystem. If you're coming from the C/C++ world, you may know CMake or similar tools to manage the project configuration and compilation. However, instead of introducing a whole new system and language, programmers must know to build something, we decided to do it using BL itself, and integrate such a feature directly into the compiler.

Configuration

To use the BL compiler-integrated build pipeline, we have to create the configuration file first. The compiler expects the project's configuration file to be called build.bl. We can reuse our "Hello World" program from the previous chapter, and create build.bl file next to it. The most basic build configuration looks like this:

build :: fn () #build_entry {
    exe := add_executable("hello");
    add_unit(exe, "hello.bl");
    compile(exe);
}

The function build marked as a build_entry is later automatically executed by the compiler. Inside the function body, we create a new executable target "hello" by add_executable function call. Then we add our hello.bl source file into it, and finally, we compile the target.

Compilation

To use our new build script, simply type blc -build into the terminal (in the folder where the build.bl is located). The newly created executable hello.exe should be generated next to the build file.

How It Works

The build script file is nothing else than the regular BL program executed directly when -build compiler flag is used. That means we can do any advanced programming here, you can use fs module API to create new files, and directories or to generate any advanced build output.

See also Build System

Variables

Syntax And Mutability

Now let's talk about the language syntax. In BL, the name comes first followed by a colon separating the name of the symbol from its type. Most type specifications in BL can be left empty if the type is obvious from the value assigned to the symbol. The second colon separates the type from the actual value of the symbol. This may be a bit confusing so let's take a look at the simplest case; the variable.

number : s32;

In this case, we declare a variable named number of type s32 and we do not specify any value of the number (the second colon and value are missing). In this case, the type s32 is mandatory (there is no value to guess the type from). Also, one very important thing is that if we do not specify the value of the variable explicitly, it's implicitly set to the default value (0 in this case). Note: This is not a case in C for example where the variable stays uninitialized.

number : s32 : 10;

Now our variable number is explicitly initialized to 10 using the literal value. All numeric literals are by default of s32 type so we can make the same declaration like this:

number :: 10;

One important note about the second colon is that it affects the variable mutablitly. Variables can be declared as mutable the variable that can be changed at any time, or immutable we must initialize the variable with some value, and the value cannot be changed later. When the colon is used, we say the variable is immutable or constant.

number :: 10;
number = 20; // This is an error. Variable is immutable.

hello.bl:3:12: error(0036): Cannot assign to immutable constant.
   2 |  number :: 10;
>  3 |  number = 20;
     |            ^
   4 |  return 0;

error: Compilation of target 'hello' failed.

To declare the variable as mutable we have to do the following:

number := 10; // '=' means the variable is mutable.
number = 20;  // This is OK now.

And in case there is no value specified, the variable is every time considered to be mutable.

number: s32; // Default value 0.
number = 20; // This is also OK.

Mutability Of Structure Members

Mutability introduced to variables of struct type is preserved also to all members unless a dereference is introduced explicitly or implicitly. That means the direct member modification is not allowed for immutable variables of struct type, however, if accessed via a pointer, the value can be changed.

Person :: struct {
    name: string_view;
    age: s32;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    person :: Person.{};
    person.age = 10; // ERROR

    person_ptr :: &person;
    person_ptr.name = "foo"; // OK, access via pointer.

    person_ptr = null; // ERROR, the pointer itself is immutable.
    return 0;
}

Initialization

As already mentioned, all variables can be initialized to some value in the declaration. In case the initialization value is not specified, the variable is implicitly "zero" initialized.

number: s32;   // Default value 0.
boolean: bool; // This is also false.

In case we want to disable the implicit initialization for some reason, we can use #noinit directive after the variable type.

number: s32 #noinit;
boolean: bool #noinit;

Both variables are left uninitialized (containing some random data from the stack). Uninitialized variables should not be used before they are set to some meaningful value.

This can be useful in some cases when the default initialization may be expensive; i.e. The initialized variable is a large struct, and we explicitly initialize all its members later.

Data :: struct {
    a: s32;
    b: bool;
    // ... lot of other members
}

data: Data #noinit; // Disable default initialization.
data.a = 10;
data.b = true;
// Initialize all other members...

Local

Local variables have their lifetime limited to the current block (code usually surrounded by curly braces). They are allocated on the stack frame of an owning function and become invalid when a function returns.

main :: fn () s32 {
    my_local_integer: s32;

    {
        another_one: s32;
    }
    return 0;
}

The first local variable in the previous function is declared in the function block, so it's available in the whole function since it's declared. However, the second variable is declared in the anonymous block, it's available only inside this block.

main :: fn () s32 {
    my_local_integer: s32;

    {
        my_local_integer = 1; // This is OK.
        another_one: s32;
        another_one = 2; // This is also OK.
    }

    another_one = 2; // Error!
    return 0;
}

hello.bl:10:5: error(0018): Unknown symbol 'another_one'.
    9 |
>  10 |         another_one = 2; // Error!
      |         ^^^^^^^^^^^
   11 |         return 0;

error: Compilation of target 'hello' failed.

Global

Global variables are in general, variables declared outside of any function. Its lifetime is not limited in any way and they are available anywhere in the program. Since there is no required ordering of symbols declared in global scope, the global variable can be used even before its declaration appears in the file. Due to this, BL does not require any header files or any kind of forward declarations.

All global variables must be initialized; either to a default value or explicitly, so we cannot use #noinit directive the same way as we did with local variables.

// Mutable initialized to 0.
number: s32;
// Mutable initialized to 'true'.
boolean := true;

main :: fn () s32 {
    print("number  = %\n", number);
    print("boolean = %\n", boolean);
    print("text    = %\n", text);
    return 0;
}

// Immutable, declared after use.
text :: "Hello";

The lifetime of global variables can be explicitly limited to the thread by #thread_local directive added after the variable declaration. The thread local variable is later instantiated for each thread separately, so it's safe to use them without any locks. But keep in mind that each instance points to a different memory location (data are not shared between threads).

#import "std/thread"

COUNT :: 50;
counter: s32 #thread_local;

main :: fn () s32 {
	print("Start thread!!!\n");
	defer print("Threads joined!!!\n");
	t1 :: std.thread_create(&first);
	t2 :: std.thread_create(&second);
	std.thread_join(t1);
	std.thread_join(t2);
	
	assert(counter == 0);
	return 0;
}

first :: fn (args: *u8) s32 {
	loop i := 0; i < COUNT; i += 1 {
		counter += 1;
		os_sleep_ms(5);
	}
	assert(counter == COUNT);
	return 0;
}

second :: fn (args: *u8) s32 {
	loop i := 0; i < COUNT; i += 1 {
		counter += 1;
		os_sleep_ms(10);
	}
	assert(counter == COUNT);
	return 0;
}

Usage Checks

The compiler will check if all declared variables are used and produce warnings eventually. However, variables declared in non-private global scope may be part of an API and are not checked for usage.

name := "Martin";

main :: fn () s32 {
    age :: 30;
    return 0;
}

#scope_private
nationality := "CZ";

test2.bl:9:1: warning: Unused symbol 'nationality'. Mark the symbol as '#maybe_unused'
                       if it's intentional.
   8 | #scope_private
>  9 | nationality := "CZ";
     | ^^^^^^^^^^^
  10 |

test2.bl:4:5: warning: Unused symbol 'age'. Use blank identificator '_' if it's
                       intentional, or mark the symbol as '#maybe_unused'. If it's
                       used only in some conditional or generated code.
   3 | main :: fn () s32 {
>  4 |     age :: 30;
     |     ^^^
   5 |     return 0;

As you can see, the compiler gives you some possible options on how to disable these warnings.

name := "Martin";

main :: fn () s32 {
    _ :: 30; // Blank identificator.
    return 0;
}

#scope_private
nationality := "CZ" #maybe_unused;

Shadowing

It's possible to declare a new variable with the same name in nested scopes, the previous variable is shadowed by the new one. In general, it's not a good idea; however, there are currently no restrictions or limitations. This may change in the future.

name := "Martin";

main :: fn () s32 {
    name := "Travis";
    {
        name := "George";
        print("name = %\n", name);
    }
    print("name = %\n", name);
    return 0;
}

Comptime Variables

Compile-time known variable is any immutable variable with a value known in compile-time. In some cases, it's required to do compile-time evaluations of the value. For example, the array type definition requires the element count to be known in compile time.

main :: fn () s32 {
    N := 10;
    array: [N]s32;
    return 0;
}

test2.bl:3:13: error(0052): Array size must be compile-time constant.
   2 |     N := 10;
>  3 |     array: [N]s32;
     |             ^
   4 |     return 0;

To fix this, it's enough to make the N variable immutable:

main :: fn () s32 {
    N :: 10; // Changed from = to :.
    array: [N]s32;
    return 0;
}

The N variable is initialized with compile-time known integer literal, however, if the initialization value is not known in compile-time, we'll get the same error again even if N is immutable.

foo := 10;

main :: fn () s32 {
    N :: foo;
    array: [N]s32;
    return 0;
}

test2.bl:5:13: error(0052): Array size must be compile-time constant.
   4 |     N :: foo;
>  5 |     array: [N]s32;
     |             ^
   6 |     return 0;

Types

Fundamental Types

Pointer Type

Represents the address of some allocated data.

#import "std/test"

pointers :: fn () #test {
    i := 666;
    i_ptr : *s32 = &i; // taking the address of 'i' variable and set 'i_ptr'
    j := @i_ptr;       // pointer dereferencing

    test_true(j == i);
};

Array Type

The array is an aggregate type of multiple values of the same type. Size value must be known in compile-time (unless it's not explicitly marked for automatic element count detection based on content of compound expression). Arrays can be inline initialized with compound block; type is required. Zero initializers can be used for zero initializations of whole array storage, otherwise, we must specify a value for every element in an array.

array_type :: fn () #test {
    arr1 : [10] s32; // declare zero initialized array variable
    arr1[0] = 666;

    arr1.len; // yields array element count (s64)
    arr1.ptr; // yields pointer to first element '&arr[0]'

    // inline initialization of array type
    arr2 := [10].s32{};              // Initialize all elements to 0.
    arr3 := [4]s32.{ 1, 2, 3, 4 };   // Initialize array to the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4
    arr4 := [_]s32.{ 1, 2, 3, 4 ];   // The same as previous one but the legth of the array is set automatically.
    arr5 : [4]s32 : .{ 1, 2, 3, 4 }; // With use of anonymous compound initializer.
};

Arrays can be implicitly converted to slices:

array_to_slice :: fn () #test {
    arr : [10] s32;
    slice : []s32 = arr;
};

String Type

String type in Biscuit aka string_view is a slice containing a pointer to string data and string length. String literals are always zero-terminated. The string_view represents a string of fixed length. In case you want a dynamically allocated string use string type and its associated methods. Values of string can be implicitly converted to string_view.

string_type :: fn () #test {
    msg : string_view = "Hello world\n";
    msg.len; // character count of the string
    msg.ptr; // pointer to the string content
};

Slice

The array slice consists of the array length and pointer to the first array element.

Slice layout:

Slice :: struct {
    len: s64;
    ptr: *T
};

array_slice :: fn () #test {
    arr :: [4]s32.{1, 2, 3, 4};
    slice : []s32 = arr;
    loop i := 0; i < slice.len; i += 1 {
        print("%\n", slice[i]);
    }
};

Note: alloc_slice can be used to allocate a slice on the heap.

Struct Type

The structure is a composite type representing a group of data as a single type. The structure is as an array another way to define a user data type, but types of structure members could be different. It can be used in situations when it's better to group data into one unit instead of interacting with separate units.

A structure can be declared with the use of struct keyword.

Person :: struct {
    id: s32;
    name: string_view;
    age: s32;
}

Structure Person in the example consists of id, name and age. Now we can create a variable of this type and fill it with data. To access a person's member fields use . operator.

main :: fn () s32 {
    my_person: Person; // Create instance of type Person
    my_person.id = 1;
    my_person.age = 20;
    my_person.name = "Martin";

    return 0;
}

Inline initialization is also possible. We can use a compound expression to set all members at once.

main :: fn () s32 {
    // Set all data in person to 0
    my_person1 := Person.{};

    // Initialize all members.
    my_person2 := Person.{ 1, "Martin", 20 };

    // We can explicitly name the members we want to initialize.
    my_person3 := Person.{ id = 1, name = "Martin", age = 20 };

    // We can change the order.
    my_person4 := Person.{ name = "Martin", age = 20, id = 1 };

    // Or initialize only something. In such a case the rest is initialized to 0 by default.
    my_person5 := Person.{ name = "Martin" };

    // Untyped compound initializer can be used too.
    my_persor6 : Person = .{ name = "Martin" };

    return 0;
}

Structure content can be printed by print function.

main :: fn () s32 {
    my_person := Person.{ 1, "Martin", 20 };
    print("%\n", my_person);

    return 0;
}

Person {id = 1, name = Martin, age = 20}

Due to lacking OOP support, we cannot declare member functions in structures and there is no class or object concept in the language. A common way to manipulate data is by passing them into the function as an argument.

person_add_age :: fn (person: *Person, add: s32) {
    // Age can be modified even if the 'person' argument is immutable.
    person.age += add;
}

Implicit Composition

A structure can extend any type with the use of #base <T>. This is a kind of inheritance (similar to the C style) where inheritance can be simulated by composition. The #base <T> inserts base: T; as the first member into the structure. The compiler can use this information later to provide more inheritance-related features like merging of scopes to enable direct access to base-type members via . operator or implicit cast from a child to a parent pointer type.

Example of structure extension:

Entity :: struct {
    id: s32
}

// Player has base type Entity
Player :: struct #base Entity {
    // base: Entity; is implicitly inserted as first member
    name: string_view;
};

Wall :: struct #base Entity {
    height: s32
};

Enemy :: struct #base Entity {
    health: s32
};

// Multi-level extension Boss -> Enemy -> Entity
Boss :: struct #base Enemy {
    // Extended struct can be empty.
};

struct_extending :: fn () #test {
    p: Player;
    p.id = 10; // direct access to base-type members
    p.name = "Travis";
    assert(p.base.id == 10); // access via .base

    w: Wall;
    w.id = 11;
    w.height = 666;

    e: Enemy;
    e.id = 12;
    e.health = 100;

    b: Boss;
    b.id = 13;

    // implicit down cast to entity
    update(&p);
    update(&w);
    update(&e);
    update(&b);
}

update :: fn (e: *Entity) {
    print("id = %\n", e.id);
}

Member Tagging

Compile-time u64 tag can be assigned to struct members. The tag value is later accessible via Type Info API in TypeInfoStructMember.tag.

NO_SERIALIZE : u64 : 1;

Entity :: struct {
	position: [3]f32;
	name: string;
	render_data: *u8 #tag NO_SERIALIZE;
}

// Check the tag.
main :: fn () s32 {
	info :: cast(*TypeInfoStruct) typeinfo(Entity);
	loop i := 0; i < info.members.len; i += 1 {
		member :: info.members[i];
		if member.tag == NO_SERIALIZE then continue;

		// do serialization...
		print_log("Serialize member: %", member.name);
	}
	return 0;
}

Union Type

The union is a special composite type representing the value of multiple types. Union size is always equal to the size of the biggest member type and the memory offset of all members is the same. Union is usually associated with some enum providing information about the stored type.

Token :: union {
    as_string: string_view;
    as_int: s32;
}

Kind :: enum {
    String;
    Int;
}

test_union :: fn () #test {
    token1: Token;
    token2: Token;

    // Token has total size of the biggest member.
    assert(sizeof(token1 == sizeof(string_view));

    token1.as_string = "This is string";
    consumer(&token, Kind.String);

    token2.as_int = 666;
    consumer(&token, Kind.Int);
}

consumer :: fn (token: *Token, kind: TokenKind) {
    switch kind {
        Kind.String { print("%\n", token.as_string); }
        Kind.Int    { print("%\n", token.as_int); }
        default { panic(); }
    }
}

Any Type

Any type is a special builtin structure containing the pointer to TypeInfo and to the data. Any value can be implicitly casted to this type while passed into a function.

Any :: struct #compiler {
    type_info: *TypeInfo;
    data: *u8
};

The Any value should never own the original data!

Implicit conversion to Any type may cause stack allocation of a temporary variable on the call side in case the original value does not represent stack or heap-allocated memory. This may cause a hidden overhead in some cases.

...
foo(10); // temp for '10' is created here
...

foo :: fn (v: Any) {}

For types converted to Any compiler implicitly sets type_info field to a pointer to the TypeType type-info and the data field to the pointer to the actual type-info of the converted type.

...
foo(s32); // Type passed
...

foo :: fn (v: Any) {
    assert(v.type_info.kind == TypeKind.TYPE);

    data_info := cast(*TypeInfo) v.data;
    assert(data_info.kind == TypeKind.INT);
}

Any can be combined with vargs; a good example of this use case is a print function where args argument type is vargs of Any (... is the same as ...Any). The print function can take values of any type passed as args.

print :: fn (format: string_view, args: ...) {
    ...
};

Enum Type

The enum represents an integer type with a limited set of possible named values. The underlying integer type can be explicitly specified after enum keyword, otherwise s32 is used implicitly. Each possible variant lives in the enum namespace.

Color :: enum {
	RED;    // default value 0
	GREEN;  // default value 1
	BLUE    // default value 2
};

// Enum declaration (base type is u8)
Day :: enum u8 {
	SAT = 1; // first value explicitly set to 1
	SUN;     // implicitly set to previous value + 1 -> 2
	MON;     // 3
	TUE;     // ...
	WED;
	THU;
	FRI
};

EntityKind :: enum {
	// All values explicitly defined.
	PLAYER = 10;
	ENEMY  = 32;
	NPC    = 78;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
	// Print types:
	print("Color      = %\n", Color);
	print("Day        = %\n", Day);
	print("EntityKind = %\n", EntityKind);

	day := Day.MON;
	print("day = %\n", day);

	// We can use 'enum_count' helper function to get count
	// of all possible values.
	day_count :: enum_count(Day);
	print("We have % possible days.\n", day_count);

	// The 'using' can expose all possible variants of enum
	// into the current scope.
	using Day;
	switch day {
		MON { print("It's Monday!\n"); }
		FRI { print("It's Friday!\n"); }
		default { print("It's some other day!\n") ; }
	}

	return 0;
}

Nested Enum Type

An enumerator can be nested in any struct in case we want to explicitly associate the enumeration with some data type.

Fruit :: struct {
	kind: enum {
		APPLE;
		ORANGE;
		BANANA;
	};
}

main :: fn () s32 {
	// Access the nested anonymous enum type in the structure.
	kind: Fruit.kind;

	kind = Fruit.kind.APPLE;

	// We can use 'using'.
	using Fruit.kind;

	switch kind {
		APPLE  { print("Apple!\n");  }
		ORANGE { print("Orange!\n"); }
		BANANA { print("Banana!\n"); }
	}

	return 0;
}

Enum Flags Type

An enumerator can be used as a definition of bit flags by adding #flags directive to the type definition. This directive slightly changes the way how the enumerator values are generated. By default, the enumerator starts with zero variant (if it's not explicitly changed by the programmer) and every following enumerator variant has a value set to the previous one plus one. The flags enumerator starts with the first variant set to 1 and the following variants are set to the left-bit-shifted value of the previous one.

Enumerators marked as flags are also serialized as a combination of atomic flags instead of just one value.

OpenMode :: enum #flags {
	READ;   // 1
	WRITE;  // 2
	APPEND; // 4
	CREATE; // 8
	WRITE_APPEND = WRITE | APPEND; // Combination of multiple variants.
	WRITE_CREATE = WRITE | CREATE;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
	mode: OpenMode; // Set to OpenMode.Read by default
	print("mode = %\n", mode);

	//
	// Set the flag
	//

	// Set mode to combination of WRITE nad CREATE flags.
	mode = OpenMode.WRITE_CREATE;
	print("mode = %\n", mode);
	
	// Note that we can use the | (or) operator on the flags enumerators. To toggle one additional
	// flag like this:
	mode |= OpenMode.APPEND;
	print("mode = %\n", mode);

	// Reset the mode back to READ only.
	mode = OpenMode.READ;
	print("mode = %\n", mode);

	// To set more flags at once, we can use the combination of multiple flags like this:
	mode = OpenMode.WRITE | OpenMode.CREATE | OpenMode.APPEND;
	print("mode = %\n", mode);


	//
	// Check flags
	//

	if (mode & OpenMode.WRITE) == OpenMode.WRITE {
		print("Set!\n");
	} else {
		print("Not set!\n");
	}

	// We can use helper function for this.
	if is_flag(mode, OpenMode.WRITE) {
		print("Set!\n");
	} else {
		print("Not set!\n");
	}


	// Check the combination. Evaluates true in case WRITE or CREATE is set.
	if is_flag(mode, OpenMode.WRITE | OpenMode.CREATE) {
		print("Set!\n");
	} else {
		print("Not set!\n");
	}

	//
	// Clear flags
	//

	mode &= ~OpenMode.WRITE;
	print("mode = %\n", mode);

	// Now check the WRITE flag again...
	if is_flag(mode, OpenMode.WRITE) {
		print("Set!\n");
	} else {
		print("Not set!\n");
	}

	return 0;
}

So in comparison to conventional enumerators, bunch of binary operations are allowed for flags enumerators to easily manipulate (set, clear and check) its values. Namely:

&      Intersection.
|      Union.
~      Bit flip.
&=     Assign intersection.
|=     Assign union.

Note: Since flags enumerators start implicitly with value 1, you can explicitly define NoFlag = 0; variant at the beginning of the variant list.

Note: Flags enumerators should use an unsigned number type as a base type (u32 by default).

Note: It's possible to do an implicit casting of flags enumerators to its base type.

Type Casting

Change the type of value to the other type. Conversions between integer types, from pointer to bool and from array to slice are generated implicitly by the compiler.

main :: fn () s32 {
    // Default type of integer literal is 's32'.
    i := 666;

    // Type of the integer literal is changed to u64.
    j : u16 = 666;

    // Implicit cast on function call.
    fn (num: u64) {
    } (j);

    // Explicit cast of 'f32' type to 's32'.
    l := 1.5f;
    m := cast(s32) l;
    return 0;
};

Type casting rules in BL are more strict compared to C or C++, there are no void pointers or implicit conversions between integers and enums etc. Despite this fact, an explicit cast can be in some cases replaced by auto cast. The auto cast operator does not need explicit destination type notation, it will automatically detect destination type based on expression if possible. When an auto operator cannot detect the type, it will keep an expression's type untouched. In such a case auto does not generate any instructions into the final binary.

main :: fn () s32 {
    s32_ptr : *s32;
    u32_ptr : *u32;

    // auto cast from *u32 to *s32
    s32_ptr = auto u32_ptr;

    // keep expession type s32
    i := auto 10;
    return 0;
};

Type Decomposition

Type decomposition can be used on the composite types to get a type of any of the nested members.

Person :: struct {
    name: string_view;
    age: s32;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    name: Person.name; // string_view type
    age: Person.age; // s32 type
    return 0;
}

This can be extremely useful when generic structures are used in polymorphic functions and we don't know internal member types in advance.

MyContainer :: fn (TValue: type) type #comptime {
    return struct {
        value: TValue;
    };
}

// Return type is type of TContainer member value.
get_value :: fn (container: *?TContainer) *TContainer.value {
    return &container.value;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    container: MyContainer(u64);
    value :: get_value(&container);
    return 0;
}

Pointer type dereference is also possible.

Person :: struct {
    name: string_view;
    age: s32;
    parent: *Person;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    parent_by_value: @Person.parent; // Person type.
    return 0;
}

Functions

A function is a chunk of code representing a specific piece of the program functionality introduced by fn keyword. A function can be called using the call operator (), we can provide any number of arguments into the function and get return value back on a call side.

A function is usually associated with a name and can be later called by this name followed by the call operator. To keep the syntax consistent, the function declaration looks similar to a variable declaration. The philosophy under the hood is the same, we associate some symbol (name) with some value (in this case a function literal). However, a function declaration is required to be always immutable.

Functions can be declared in the global or a local scope (one function can be nested in another one).

my_global_function :: fn () {
    print("Hello from global function!!!\n");
} // Semicolon is optional here.

test_fn :: fn () #test {
    my_local_function :: fn () {
        print("Hello from local function!!!\n");
    }; // Semicolon is required here.

    // Call functions.
    my_global_function();
    my_local_function();
}

Note: Local functions cannot use any variables from the parent function. No variable capturing is supported, for now, you have to pass a context explicitly into the function as an argument.

Function Arguments

Function arguments are values passed into the function from the outside. Arguments, the function expects, are listed in the argument list in the function declaration. Each argument is declared as the name and type separated by the semicolon. Function arguments in BL are immutable (an argument itself cannot be changed in the function body). See the following example:

Person :: struct {
    age: s32;
}

// Function taking two arguments.
my_function :: fn (person_1: *Person, person_2: Person, age: s32) {
    age = 30; // This is invalid 'age' is immutable.
    person_1 = null; // The same for the 'person_1' argument.

    // The 'person_1' here is immutable (you cannot change the pointer to something else),
    // however you can modify members using this pointer.
    // The C equivalent would be something like 'struct Person *const person_1'.
    person_1.age = age;

    // On the other hand the 'person_2' is passed into the function by value, so the
    // following expression is invalid; you cannot modify its members.
    parson_2.age = age;

    // You can use de-reference to modify the whole person data; you do not change
    // the pointer itself (it still points to the same memory, just content of this
    // memory is being changed).
    person: Person;
    @person_1 = person;

    // In case you want to modify the argument value, you should create a local copy.
    local_age := age;
    local_age += 2;
}

Arguments With Default Value

In some cases we want to provide less boilerplate API and call functions only with some of the arguments from the argument list, this is possible using argument default values.

compare :: fn (a: f32, b: f32, epsilon: f32 = 0.1f) bool {
    return std.abs(a - b) < epsilon;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    compare(13.f, 12.f, 0.001f); // We don't use the default value.
    compare(13.f, 12.f); // We use default value.

    return 0;
}

The explicit f32 type is optional for the epsilon with default value since we have the value to get the type from, so the following code is also valid.

compare :: fn (a: f32, b: f32, epsilon := 0.1f) bool {
    return std.abs(a - b) < epsilon;
}

One limitation here is that the arguments with default values must go very last in the argument list. Currently, there is no way how to specify namely which argument we want to call on the call side.

compare :: fn (epsilon := 0.1f, a: f32, b: f32) bool {
    return std.abs(a - b) < epsilon;
}

test2.bl:1:16: error(0035): All arguments with default value must be listed last in the function
                            argument list. Before arguments without default value.
>  1 | compare :: fn (epsilon := 0.1f, a: f32, b: f32) bool {
     |                ^^^^^^^
   2 |     return std.abs(a - b) < epsilon;

Call Location

One special feature very useful for debugging is #call_location which can be used as a default argument value. Each time the function is called, the #call_location is replaced by a pointer to the CodeLocation variable, containing information about where the function was called in the source code.

my_assert :: fn (expression: bool, location : *CodeLocation = #call_location) {
    if !expression {
        print("Assert called in '%' on line %.\n", location.file, location.line);
    }
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    my_assert(false);
    return 0;
}

Assert called in 'C:/Develop/bl/tests/test2.bl' on line 9.

Compile-time Known Arguments

So far, in all examples, arguments passed to functions were processed in runtime. In some cases, we may require the argument to be compile-time known. A function having at least one compile-time known argument is called mixed function. We can do so simply by adding #comptime directive after the argument declaration.

load_data :: fn (BUFFER_SIZE: s32 #comptime) {
    // 'SIZE' is compile-time known constant here.
    buffer: [BUFFER_SIZE]s32;
    // ...
}

Since the BUFFER_SIZE is compile-time known constant, it can be used as size in an array type definition. This obviously means the BUFFER_SIZE argument needs to be compile-time constant when the function is called, otherwise the compiler generates an error.

Internally, load_data function does not exist until the compiler hits a call to this function; we don't know what the value of BUFFER_SIZE is in advance. The compiler will generate a unique implementation with BUFFER_SIZE argument removed from the argument list and converted into compile-time known constant value for each compiled call to this function in the code. At this point, you may see some possible disadvantages. Since the compile-time argument is removed from the argument list, the mixed function cannot follow C call conventions and cannot be exported or external. Also, instantiating a new function implementation for each call in the code can lead to a bigger executable and slow down the compiler.

One important thing, we can do with mixed functions is having also types as input arguments. See the implementation of new function from the standard library:

// Allocate memory on heap for value of 'T' type.
new :: fn (T: type #comptime, preferred_allocator: *Allocator = null, loc := #call_location)
          (ptr: *T, err: Error) #inline {
    mem, err :: alloc(sizeof(T), alignof(T), preferred_allocator, loc);
    return auto mem, err;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    number_on_heap :: new(s32);
    free(auto number_on_heap);
    return 0;
}

Pros

• We can pass types into functions.
• We can reference the compile-time arguments in the argument list (i.e. use them as return type).

Cons

• Can produce larger binary and slow down the compilation process.
• Compile-time known argument cannot be used as a default value of another argument.
• Type-checking is very limited since we don't know comptime arguments in advance; the generated implementation is type-checked each time the function is called.
• Mixed functions do not represent any stack-allocated memory (we cannot get its address).
• Don't follow C calling conventions:
  • Cannot be extern.
  • Cannot be export.

Variable Argument Count

In BL, we can have a function taking 0-N values in the argument list, let's start with an example:

sum :: fn (nums: ...s32) s32 {
    // nums is slice of s32
    result := 0;
    loop i := 0; i < nums.len; i += 1 {
        result += nums[i];
    }

    return result;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    print("%\n", sum(10, 20, 30));
    print("%\n", sum(10, 20));
    print("%\n", sum());

    return 0;
}

The nums argument type is ...s32, that means we expect any number of s32 integers to be passed into the function. This is just syntax sugar for passing a pointer to an array of integers. When sum function is called, the compiler will implicitly generate a temporary array containing all passed arguments and then forward this array into the function. Inside the function we can use common .len slice member to get a count of passed integers and access each one using [] operator. This approach may cause some overhead compared to C version of the same feature, however, it's way more safe and ergonomic.

We can use ...Any to allow values of any type to be passed into the function, or just ... shortcut to do the same. One good example is the print function from the standard library.

print :: fn (format: string_view, args: ...) s32 {
    // ...
}

Pros

• We can pass any number of arguments we want.
• Safe and easy to use.

Cons

• Some overhead may be introduced by implicit conversion to an array.
• Must be the last in the argument list.
• Don't follow C calling conventions:
  • Cannot be extern.
  • Cannot be export.

Return Value

Each function can eventually return some value using the return statement. The return statement returns the execution back to the caller, so the execution of the function ends in case the return is reached. The return value is optional and can be specified in the function declaration header after the argument list. There is no void type (like in C or C++) to say the function does not return, we simply leave the return value type empty. The following example shows the function without the return value.

say :: fn (is_hello: bool) {
    if is_hello {
        print("Hello!");
        return; // We can use 'return' without values.
    }
    print("Hi!");
    // Return here is optional.
}

Another example shows the function returning an integer.

add :: fn (a: s32, b: s32) s32 {
    return a + b; // Return is mandatory.
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    result := add(1, 2);
    return 0;
}

A function may return multiple values at once like this:

foo :: fn () (s32, bool) {
    // We separate each value by comma.
    return 666, true;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    // s32 goes into int1 and bool into boolean1
    int1, boolean1 := foo();

    // Not all values must be used.
    // s32 value goes into int2.
    int2 := foo();

    // We can use '_'  blank identifier to ignore some values.
    _, boolean2 := foo();

    // We can access each return value like it was structure.
    boolean3 := foo()._0; // '_0' is builtin index of first value.
    boolean3 := foo()._1; // '_1' is builtin index of second value.

    return 0;
}

The returned result values can be unrolled on the call side; we can initialize more variables with different type at once, but we have to keep the order of return values specified in the function declaration.

Each returned value can have a name:

foo :: fn () (number: s32, is_valid: bool) {
    return 666, true;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    // s32 goes into int1 and bool into boolean1
    int1, boolean1 := foo();

    // We can access each return value like it was structure.
    boolean2 := foo().is_valid;

    return 0;
}

Internally the compiler creates an implicit structure and returns all values as a single one; that's why the call-side use of the call results is called unrolling. In case we return a lot of values, the compiler may introduce some optimizations to avoid returning large data from a function.

This feature comes in handy in cases where we want to include also a possible error as the result. One common approach to addressing an error handling goes like this:

#import "std/fs"

main :: fn () s32 {
	using std;

	stream, open_err :: open_file(#file);
	defer close_file(&stream);
	if open_err { 
		print_err(open_err); 
		return 1; 
	}

	str := str_new();
	defer str_delete(&str);
	read_bytes, read_err :: read_string(&stream, &str);
	if read_err { 
		print_err(read_err);
		return 2;
	}
	print("read % bytes\n", read_bytes);
	print("%\n", str);
	return 0;
}

The open_file function in this case returns the file stream and possible error in case the file cannot be opened.

Anonymous Functions And Callbacks

Sometimes a function may be used only once as an callback function passed into some other function. In such a case we can simplify the declaration and keep the function unnamed. One good example is the sort function declared like this:

sort :: fn (list: []s32, cmp: *fn(a: *s32, b: *s32) bool)  {
    loop i := 0; i < list.len; i += 1 {
        loop j := i+1; j < list.len; j += 1 {
            if cmp(&list[i], &list[j]) {
                swap(&list[i], &list[j]);
            }
        }
    }
}

We pass a list slice of numbers and we want it to be sorted with use of some custom cmp comparator. The comparator in this case is a pointer to any function taking *s32, *s32 and returning bool. The easiest way to provide such a function is to create an anonymous callback and pass its address.

main :: fn () s32 {
    numbers: []s32;
    alloc_slice(&numbers, 10);
    defer free_slice(&numbers);
    loop i := 0; i < numbers.len; i += 1 { numbers[i] = i; }
    print("%\n", numbers);

    // Here we pass pointer to anonymous function into the 'sort'.
    sort(numbers, &fn (a: *s32, b: *s32) bool {
        return @a < @b;
    });

    print("%\n", numbers);
    return 0;
}

Function Overloading

More functions can be associated with one name with explicit function overloading groups. A call to a group of functions is replaced with a proper function call during compilation, based on provided arguments.

group :: fn { s32_add; f32_add; }

s32_add :: fn (a: s32, b: s32) s32 {
    return a + b;
}

f32_add :: fn (a: f32, b: f32) f32 {
    return a + b;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    i :: group(10, 20);
    j :: group(0.2f, 13.534f);
    print("i = %\n", i);
    print("j = %\n", j);
    return 0;
}

Note: There is no additional runtime overhead caused by function overloading.

Note: Ordering of functions inside the group is arbitrary.

Functions can be declared directly inside the overload group:

group :: fn {
    fn (a: s32, b: s32) s32 {
        return a + b;
    };

    fn (a: f32, b: f32) f32 {
        return a + b;
    };
}

Overload Resolution

When a function group is called the function overload resolution takes into account multiple options to sort all possible call candidates by priority. The candidate function with the highest priority is used. In case there are multiple functions with the same priority found in the group, the compiler complains about ambiguous a function. In case there is no call candidate, the first one is used. This usually leads to an error later if the function interface is not compatible.

The overload resolution is based on:

• Argument count.
• Argument types.
• Type casting.
• Conversion to slice.
• Conversion to any.

Note: The return type does not affect choosing the best call candidate.

Resolving the best call candidate is done in two passes:

• Pick all possible candidates based on call-side argument count when:

  • The argument count is exactly matching the count of arguments required by the function interface.
  • All arguments, up to the first defaulted or variable count argument in the function interface, are provided.

• Iterate over previously picked functions and rank them by comparing call-side arguments with each function's interface arguments one by one:

  • The type is exactly the same. (Rank +3)
  • Can be implicitly casted. (Rank +2)
  • Can be implicitly converted. (Rank +2)
  • Can be implicitly converted to Any. (Rank +1)
  • Can be added to the variable count argument array. (Rank +1)

• Use the function with the highest rank.

a :: fn (_: []u8)                {}
b :: fn (_: string)              {}
c :: fn (_: Any)                 {}
d :: fn (_: s32, _: bool = true) {}

group :: fn { a; b; c; d; }

// a: rank = 3 <- used
// b: rank = 0
// c: rank = 1
// d: rank = 0
group("hello");

// a: rank = 2 (can be implicitly converted to []u8)
// b: rank = 3 <- used
// c: rank = 1
// d: rank = 0
str: string;
group(str);

// a: rank = 0
// b: rank = 0
// c: rank = 1
// d: rank = 3 <- used
group(10);

// a: rank = 0
// b: rank = 0
// c: rank = 0
// d: rank = 6 <- used
group(10, false);

// a: rank = 0
// b: rank = 0
// c: rank = 1
// d: rank = 2 <- used (implicitly casted s8 to s32)
i: s8;
group(10);

Polymorphic Functions

Polymorphic function (aka templated function or generic function) is a well-known concept in many programming languages. It's a sort of meta-programming method reducing a boilerplate code. The basic idea is the automatic generation of functions doing the same operation but using different types. Instead of rewriting the function for every type needed, we just specify it as a "recipe" for later generations.

Consider the following function doing an addition of two values, when we want to use the function with multiple different types, we must explicitly rewrite the same function for every type needed:

add_s32 :: fn (a: s32, b: s32) s32 {
    return a + b;
}

// Same for floats.
add_f32 :: fn (a: f32, b: f32) f32 {
    return a + b;
}

In this case, we can use polymorph instead:

add :: fn (a: ?T, b: T) T {
    return a + b;
}

Value of T represents any type, in this case, chosen based on usage of the function. The question mark before T says the first T is the master polymorph type. The compiler tries to replace all master types with the type of argument on the call side and register the new type alias T in the function scope.

Example of usage:

main :: fn () s32 {
    result_1 : s32 = add(10, 20);
    result_2 : f32 = add(1.4f, 42.5f);

    return 0;
}

Notice that we call the same function, first with integers and second with floats. The type of T is based on the first argument type (because the master type is defined as the type of the first argument). The second argument type, in this case, must be the same type as the master because b use, as its type, alias T. The same alias is used also as a return type.

So two functions are generated internally:

.add.1 :: fn (a: s32, b: s32) s32 {
    return a + b;
}

.add.2 :: fn (a: f32, b: f32) f32 {
    return a + b;
}

Note: Content of polymorphic function is semantically analyzed only when the function is used.

Nested Master Type

Polymorph master type replacement can be used also as a nested member in more complex types.

sum :: fn (slice: []?T) T {
    result: T; // We can use T inside the function as well
    loop i := 0; i < slice.len; i += 1 {
        result += slice[i];
    }
    return result;
}

// Sum function accepts any slice as an input and any array is implicitly convertible
// to slice.

// Use the function with static array
arr_static := [3]s32.{10, 20, 30};
sum(arr_static); // T = s32

// Use the function with dynamic array
arr_dynamic: [..]f32;
defer array_terminate(&arr_dynamic);
array_push(&arr_dynamic, 10.f);
array_push(&arr_dynamic, 20.f);
array_push(&arr_dynamic, 30.f);

sum(arr_dynamic); // T = f32

Multiple Polymorph Masters

More than one polymorphic master can be declared inside the function argument list:

table_insert :: fn (table: *Table, key: ?TKey, value: ?TValue) {
    // ...
}

Specify Implementation For Type

In some cases we want to specify explicitly what implementation should be used for some specific type, i.e. in a function doing a comparison of two values, we can provide specific handling for string:

is_equal :: fn { // function group
    // Implementation used for strings only.
    fn (a: string_view, b: string_view) bool {
        return std.str_compare(a, b);
    };

    // Implementation used for all other types.
    fn (a: ?T, b: T) bool {
        return a == b;
    };
}

Limitations:

• Polymorph master type cannot have a default value.
• Type-checking is very limited since we don't know types of the arguments in advance.
• Polymorph functions does not represent any stack allocated memory (we cannot get its address).
• Don't follow C calling conventions:
  • Cannot be extern.
  • Cannot be export.

Function Directives

The function directives can be specified after the function return type declaration:

get_age :: fn () s32 #inline {}

inline/noinline

Tells the compiler whether it should try to inline the called function. Inlining may not be possible in some cases, however in general it can improve the runtime speed. Inline functions should not be too complex.

extern

An extern function is a function implemented in a foreign library linked to the program. Such a function defines only an interface but cannot be implemented (does not have a body). The #extern directive can be optionally followed by the linkage name of the external symbol. If the linkage name is not specified, the function name is used instead. Having external functions allows the use of any existing C ABI compatible library.

The extern functions must strictly follow C call conventions.

my_malloc :: fn (size: size_t) void_ptr #extern "malloc";
free :: fn (ptr: void_ptr) #extern;

export

Functions with an export directive are exported from the binary when a program is compiled as a shared library (with -shared flag). So the function may be called from the other libraries or executables after successful linking. The #export directive can be optionally followed by the linkage name of the exported symbol. If the linkage name is not specified, the function name is used instead.

The export functions must strictly follow C call conventions. That means, the function cannot be polymorphic (generated in compile time).

my_add :: fn (a: s32, b: s32) s32 #export "add" {
    return a + b;
}

comptime

Every call to such a function is going to be evaluated in compile-time and replaced by constant eventually.

hash_string :: fn (s: string_view) u32 #comptime {
    return std.str_hash(s);
}

The hash function can be later called the same way as any other regular function, but the call itself is replaced by the constant result value in the final binary.

main :: fn () s32 {
    // 'hash_string' is executed in compile-time and 'hash' value is initialized
    // later in runtime with pre-calculated constant.
    // Called function does not exist in the final binary.
    hash := hash_string("Hello!");
    print("%\n", hash);
    return 0;
}

So the comptime function has no runtime overhead.

Pros:

• Since all comptime functions are evaluated in compile-time, there is no runtime overhead.
• The result of the comptime function call is also compile time known.
• Compile time function can return types and can be used in type definitions.

Cons:

• Every argument passed, must be known in compile-time.
• Returning pointers from comptime functions is not a good idea.
• An internal execution stack for compile-time evaluated functions is limited to 128kB; compile time execution of too complicated stuff may cause stack overflows.

enable_if

The #enable_if directive can be used to conditionally specify whether a certain function should be included or excluded from a final binary. This might be used for debug-only functions like debug logs, profiling code etc.

Following code is supposed to measure the runtime of the main function only in debug mode (when bool expression after #enable_if directive evaluates true in compile-time). Calls to these functions are completely removed in release mode as well as the implementation.

main :: fn () s32 {
    measure_runtime_in_debug_only();
    defer measure_runtime_in_debug_only_end();

    // do something here

    return 0;
}

measure_runtime_in_debug_only :: fn () #enable_if IS_DEBUG {
    // ...
}

measure_runtime_in_debug_only_end :: fn () #enable_if IS_DEBUG {
    // ...
}

Notes:

• The function and all its calls are fully analyzed even if the function is disabled.
• The conditional function might return values, but in case the function is disabled the returned value on the call side is implicitly changed to void type. Such behavior is intentionally chosen to prevent possible issues with uninitialized variables.

Comments

Simple documentation can be written directly into the code the same way as in other programming languages, simply by adding comments. The BL comments use the same syntax as in C. You can write a single-line comment or multi-line comment as needed. You can also write documentation directly into the code and let the compiler generate markdown files for you.

Single-line Comments

You can use single-line comments introduced by // anywhere in the code. Everything up to the end of the line is considered a comment.

// This is the main function.
main :: fn () s32 {
    return 0; // We return 0 here.
}

Multi-line Comments

Multi-line comments are also supported:

/*
    The main function.

    This is the entry point of our program.
*/
main :: fn () s32 /* the signed number is returned from the main *// {
    return 0;
}

Documentation Comments

Since the BL compiler supports documentation generation out of the box, you can use two types of comments which are supposed to be a part of a generated document.

• //! Documentation of the file.
• /// Documentation of the following symbol.

See also Documentation.

Literals

Simple Literals

b :: true;         // bool true literal
b :: false;        // bool false literal
ptr : *s32 = null; // *s32 null pointer literal

Integer Literals

Biscuit language provides constant integer literals written in various formats showed in the example bellow. Integer literals have a volatile type, when the desired type is not specified compiler will choose the best type to hold the value. Numbers requiring less space than 32 bits will be implicitly set to s32, numbers requiring more space than 31 bits and less space than 64 bits will be set to s64 and numbers requiring 64 bits will be set to u64 type. Bigger numbers are not supported and the compiler will complain. When we specify type explicitly (ex.: foo : u8 : 10;), an integer literal will inherit the type of the variable (same for function calls where the type is known).

i     :: 10;      // s32 literal
i_u8  : u8 : 10;  // u8 literal
i_hex :: 0x10;    // s32 literal
i_bin :: 0b1011;  // s32 literal
f     :: 13.43f;  // f32 literal
d     :: 13.43;   // f64 literal
char  :: 'i';     // u8 character literal

String Literals

The string literal is represented as a constant utf8 array of bytes stored in the builtin value of string_view type. The content of the array is allocated on the stack and cannot be changed in runtime.

the_name :: "Martin Dorazil";

A longer string value may be split into multiple lines, the result value is evaluated as a single string.

text ::
    "This "
    "is "
    "long "
    "text on multiple "
    "lines.";

Operators

Binary Operators

+      Addition.
-      Subtraction.
*      Multiplication.
/      Division.
%      Remainder division.
+=     Addition and assign.
-=     Subtraction and assign.
*=     Multiplication and assign.
/=     Division and assign.
%=     Remainder division and assign.
<      Less.
>      Greater.
<=     Less or equals.
>=     Greater or equals.
==     Equals.
&&     Logical AND.
||     Logical OR.
&      Bit AND.
|      Bit OR.
^      Bit XOR.
&=     Bit AND and assign.
|=     Bit OR and assign.
^=     Bit XOR and assign.
<<     Bitshift left.
>>     Bitshift right.

Unary Operators

\+     Positive value.
\-     Negative value.
@      Pointer dereference.
&      Address of.
!      Logical not.
~      Bit flip.

Flow Control

In this chapter, we'll focus on language features focused on conditional code execution and repetitive execution of some code blocks. The BL implements all well-known concepts of flow control and a little bit more. The most common way to let you execute a part of a code only in case some runtime condition is true is the if statement.

If Else

The if-else, as in many other languages, splits the code into two branches and executes one or the other based on some runtime condition. The first branch is executed only if the condition is true. The expression after if statement is required to be a bool or at least convertible to bool type. The implicit conversion is applied only to the pointer values where the null pointer converts to false implicitly.

main :: fn () s32 {
    do_it := true;

    if do_it {
        print("It's done!\n");
    }
}

Notice that we don't need additional brackets around the condition like in C-like languages. We can optionally introduce the else block executed if the if condition is false.

main :: fn () s32 {
    do_it := false;

    if do_it {
        print("It's done!\n");
    } else {
        print("It's not done!\n");
    }

    return 0;
}

In some cases we might need only simple single line piece of code executed conditionally. To make it possible, since brackets around the if statement expression are not required, we've introduced then keyword. All following examples are valid.

main :: fn () s32 {
    expr := true;

    if expr { print("This is true branch!\n"); }
    if !expr { print("This is true branch!\n"); } else { print("This is false branch!\n"); }

    // Then is optional here.
    if expr then { print("This is true branch!\n"); }
    if !expr then { print("This is true branch!\n"); } else { print("This is false branch!\n"); }

    // Then is required here. We can have only one statement/expression for each branch.
    if expr then print("This is true branch!\n");
    if !expr then print("This is true branch!\n") else print("This is false branch!\n");

    return 0;
}

We can also create the whole conditional chain:

Color :: enum {
    RED;
    GREEN;
    BLUE;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    color := Color.GREEN;

    if color == Color.RED {
        print("It's red!\n");
    } else if color == Color.GREEN {
        print("It's green!\n");
    } else if color == Color.BLUE {
        print("It's blue!\n");
    } else {
        print("It's something else!\n");
    }

    return 0;
}

However, in such a situation it's better to use the switch statement.

Ternary If Operator

Multiline conditional can be in some cases condensed to a single line expression. We can use ternary if expression for this. Unlike in C languge, there is no special operator for such expression in BL. We can just use the same syntax we already have using if then pattern. In case the if statement is used as an expression, the else branch is mandatory. We also cannot use block branches.

main :: fn () s32 {
    value := 50;

    number: s32;
    // Conditional using standard if statement.
    if value > 0 {
        number = 10;
    } else {
        number = 20;
    }

    // Conditional using inline if statement.
    if value > 0 then number = 10 else number = 20;

    // Direct conditional initialization using ternary if expression.
    number = if value > 0 then 10 else 20;

    return 0;
}

Switch

A switch can compare one numeric value against multiple values and switch execution flow to matching case. The default case can be used for all other values we don't explicitly handle. While the expression after switch keyword is supposed to be a runtime value, the case values must be known in compile-time. Currently, the switch can be used only with integer types.

Color :: enum {
    RED;
    GREEN;
    BLUE;
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    color := Color.BLUE;
    switch color {
        Color.RED   { print("It's red!\n");   }
        Color.GREEN { print("It's green!\n"); }
        Color.BLUE  { print("It's blue!\n");  }
    }

    return 0;
}

It's also possible to reuse one execution block for multiple cases, just list all case values separated by comma followed by the execution block.

switch color {
    Color.RED,
    Color.GREEN { print("It's red or green!\n"); }
    Color.BLUE  { print("It's  blue!\n");  }
}

In case the switch is used with enum values, the compiler will automatically check for you if all possible cases are covered.

switch color {
    Color.GREEN { print("It's red or green!\n"); }
    Color.BLUE  { print("It's  blue!\n");  }
}

test2.bl:9:5: warning: Switch does not handle all possible enumerator values.
   8 |     color := Color.BLUE;
>  9 |     switch color {
     |     ^^^^^^
  10 |         Color.GREEN { print("It's red or green!\n"); }

Missing case for: RED

If you don't want to handle all cases explicitly, you can introduce a default case:

switch color {
    Color.GREEN { print("It's red or green!\n"); }
    Color.BLUE  { print("It's  blue!\n");  }
    default { print("It's some other color."); }
}

In the previous example we print a message for the default case, but we can use just an empty statement here:

switch color {
    Color.GREEN { print("It's red or green!\n"); }
    Color.BLUE  { print("It's  blue!\n");  }
    default;
}

Loop

Another common way how to manage program control flow is looping. This is a well-known concept available in a lot of languages. We simply run some part of code N-times where N is based on some condition. In BL there is only a single loop keyword for loops followed by an optional condition. We can use break and continue statements inside loops. The break statement will simply interrupt looping and skip out of the loop body. The continue statement will immediately jump to the next loop iteration.

main :: fn () s32 {
    count :: 10;
    i := 0;

    // The loop without conditions will run infinitely until return or break is hit.
    loop {
        i += 1;
        if i == count {
            // Jump out of the loop.
            break;
        }
    }

    // Iterate until the 'i' is less than 'count'.
    i = 0;
    loop i < count {
        i += 1;
    }

    // Iterate until the 'j' is less than 'count'. This is the same concept
    // as the previous one, except we declare the iterator directly in the
    // loop.
    loop j := 0; j < count; j += 1 {
        // do something amazing here
    }

    loop j := 0; j < count; j += 1 {
        // We can use 'continue' to skip printing when j is 2.
        if j == 2 { continue; }
        print("j = %\n", j);
    }

    return 0;
}

Defer

One, not so common concept is a defer statement. The defer statement can be used for the "deferring" execution of some expressions. All deferred expressions will be executed at the end of the current scope in reverse order. This is usually useful for some cleanup (i.e. closing a file or freeing memory). When the scope is terminated by return all previous defers up the scope tree will be called after evaluation of return value. See the following example:

main :: fn () s32 {
    defer print("1\n");

    {
        // Lexical scope introduced.
        defer print("2 ");
        defer print("3 ");
        defer print("4 ");
    } // defer 4, 3, 2

    other_function();

    defer print("5 ");
    return 0;
} // defer 5, 1

other_function :: fn () s32 {
    defer print("6 ");
    defer print("7 ");

    if true {
        defer print("8 ");
        return 1;
    } // defer 8, 7, 6

    // This part is newer reached, compiler will complain.
    defer print("9 ");
    return 0;
}

The output:

4 3 2 8 7 6 5 1

Another good example is the following:

#import "std/fs"

main :: fn () s32 {
	using std;

	stream, open_err :: open_file(#file);
	defer close_file(&stream);
	if open_err { 
		print_err(open_err); 
		return 1; 
	}

	str := str_new();
	defer str_delete(&str);
	read_bytes, read_err :: read_string(&stream, &str);
	if read_err { 
		print_err(read_err);
		return 2;
	}
	print("read % bytes\n", read_bytes);
	print("%\n", str);
	return 0;
}

Where the defer is used to close_file and str_delete; we can nicely couple the resource allocation and deallocation together and also handle possible errors in more elegant way. In this case, the close_file will be called in case of any error, while opening a file, after return 1; or after the last return 0; automatically.

Code Structure

A BL code is organized into scopes similar to C++ namespaces. Each scope groups entities inside, and can limit their visibility from the outside. Scopes can be used also to avoid naming collisions. They are organized into a tree structure, where one scope may contain a bunch of other scopes. In this chapter, we describe all possible scope kinds in detail.

Global Scope

The global scope is created implicitly and encloses all symbols and other scopes in the program. It's the top scope without any parent scope. You can use #load or #import directives to add symbols from other files in the global scope of our program. Consider we have two files, one called utils.bl containing the my_print_log function declared in global scope, and the other file containing the main function. We can use a #load followed by the file name to make the my_print_log function available in the main. The #load should be followed by the filepath relative to the file we're loading from, but it can be any absolute existing path to the other file. The #import is meant to be used with modules.

// utils.bl
my_print_log :: fn (text: string_view) {}

// main.bl
#load "utils.bl"

main :: fn () s32 {
    my_print_log("Hello");
    return 0;
}

Load

#load "<path/to/your/file.bl>"

Loads source code in a single file into the current global scope of your project. Every file is loaded only once even if we load it from multiple locations. The filepath may be any existing absolute or relative path, in case the path is relative, the compiler lookup the file using the following lookup order (the first hit is used):

Lookup order:

• Current file parent directory.
• BL API directory set in install-location/etc/bl.yaml.
• System PATH environment variable.

Import

#import "<path/to/your/module>"

The import is supposed to be used with BL modules.

See also Module Import Policy.

Named Scope

The named scope may be introduced in a source file if we want to prevent possible name collisions with other symbols in the global scope. In the previous example, we've introduced my_print_log function, but we probably don't want to call it like this in a production code; we prefer only print_log name. The problem is, the print_log function already exists in the standard library and is imported by default. To fix this we may enclose our function into named scope called utils.

// utils.bl
#scope utils

print_log :: fn (text: string_view) {}

// main.bl
#load "utils.bl"

main :: fn () s32 {
    // Print is now nested in 'utils' scope.
    utils.print_log("Hello");
    return 0;
}

The named scope in utils.bl file is now introduced by #scope directive followed by the scope name. Everything in the file after the #scope directive is added into utils named scope. There is currently no possibility to create named scope nested in another named scope; this restriction mainly exists only to keep the scope structure relatively flat.

As you can see, the print_log function is now accessible only through . operator and it's nested in the named scope called utils.

Public Scope

The public scope #scope_public can be introduced in a source file to switch back from current private scope (basically, it can be used to terminate private scope block). Functions or variables in public scope can be used from current file or from other files as well. All global declarations in BL are public by default until a private scope directive is introduced.

Private Scope

The private scope may be created by #scope_private directive in a source file, everything declared after this directive (in private block) is accessible only inside the current file. The private scope can be terminated by public scope directive.

The main purpose of a private scope is to hide some internal implementations which should not be accessible from the outside world.

// utils.bl
#scope utils

print_log :: fn (text: string_view) {
    // We can access the private stuff since it's in the same file.
    set_output_color(Color.BLUE);
    defer set_output_color(Color.NORMAL);
    // Use default print to print the message.
    print(text);
}

#scope_private
// All following code is visible only inside the current file.

Color :: enum {
    NORMAL;
    RED;
    BLUE;
}

set_output_color :: fn (color: Color) {
    switch color {
        Color.NORMAL { ... }
        Color.RED { ... }
        Color.BLUE { ... }
    }
}

Local Scope

Local scopes are created implicitly for each function since the usage of symbols, declared in the function, is strictly limited to be used only inside that function. The compiler creates local scopes also for structures, unions and enums, where the content of those is again accessible using the . operator.

Using

The using statement may be added in local scopes to reduce the amount of code you have to write. It makes the content of "used" scope directly available in the scope the using is living in. Be careful using this feature, it may introduce symbol ambiguity and the compiler may complain.

Currently, the using supports named scopes and enums, it's not allowed for structures and unions, since it may make the code less readable.

// main.bl
#load "utils.bl"

main :: fn () s32 {
    using utils;

    // This is not valid, compiler don't known if you mean 'print_log' from the
    // standard library or the one from utils.bl.
    print_log("Hello");
    return 0;
}

main.bl:9:5: error(0078): Symbol is ambiguous.
   8 |     // standard library or the one from utils.bl.
>  9 |     print_log("Hello");
     |     ^^^^^^^^^
  10 |     return 0;

debug.bl:38:1: First declaration found here.
   37 | /// Print debug log using current application_context `print_log_fn` function.
>  38 | print_log :: fn (format: string_view, args: ...) #inline {
      | ^^^^^^^^^
   39 |     application_context.print_log_fn(PrintLogKind.MESSAGE, "", 0, format, args);

utils.bl:4:1: Another declaration found here.
   3 |
>  4 | print_log :: fn (text: string_view) {
     | ^^^^^^^^^
   5 |     // We can access the private stuff since it's in the same file.

However, we can use this feature in utils.bl like this:

set_output_color :: fn (color: Color) {
    using Color;
    // Content of Color is now available in current scope.

    switch color {
        // No need to write 'Color.' before each variant.
        NORMAL {}
        RED {}
        BLUE {}
    }
}

Modules

A module in BL is a chunk of reusable multi-platform code bundled with a configuration file in a single module root directory. See the following example of the thread module.

thread/
  module.yaml       - module config
  _thread.win32.bl  - windows implementation
  _thread.posix.bl  - posix implementation
  thread.bl         - interface
  thread.test.bl    - unit tests

Modules can be imported into other projects using the #import directive followed by the module root directory path. The configuration file module.yaml is mandatory for each module and must be located in the module root directory. In general, the configuration file tells the compiler which source files should be loaded, which libraries are needed and what is the module version. See the module configuration example.

version: 20221021

x86_64-pc-windows-msvc:
  src: "_thread.win32.bl"

x86_64-pc-linux-gnu:
  src: "_thread.posix.bl"

x86_64-apple-darwin:
  src: "_thread.posix.bl"

arm64-apple-darwin:
  src: "_thread.posix.bl"

The first in the file is the version of the module (usually in the format YYYYMMDD) followed by the list of all compilation targets supported by the module. In this example, we use a different implementation for Windows. You can get a list of all supported platforms using the blc --target-supported command.

To import the thread module use the root directory path:

#import "path/to/module/thread"

See also Module Import Policy.

Note: Modules will be redesigned in the future to support the full set of features required by the build system. The long-term plan is to have the module configuration written directly in BL.

List of module config entries

The configuration file entries may be global or platform-specific, see the following sections.

Global Options

The global options are applied to the module on all target platforms.

• version: <N> - Module version number used during import to distinguish various versions of the same module, see also ModuleImportPolicy for more information.
• supported: "[triple,...]" - Optional list of target triples supported by module separated by comma. When module depends on some platform specific libraries (which are supposed to be bundled with the module), we might allow this module only on platforms we've provided the precompiled binaries for. Error is generated when module is used on target not included in this list.

Global or Platform-Specific Options

All the following options may be applied globally or just for a specific target platform.

• src: "<FILE1[;FILE2;...]>" - List of source file paths relative to the module root directory separated by platform-specific separator (: on Windows and ; on Unix).
• linker_opt: "<OPTIONS>" - Additional runtime linker options.
• linker_lib_path: "<DIR1;[DIR2;...]>" - Additional linker lookup directories relative to the module root directory.
• link: "<LIB1[;LIB2;...]> - Libraries to link. Note that libraries listed here are dynamically loaded during compilation (may be executed in compile-time).

# The version is required to be global.
version: 20221021

# Load this file on all platforms.
src: "my_file_imported_everytime.bl"

# Section specific for Windows.
x86_64-pc-windows-msvc:
  src: "my_file_only_for_windows.bl"

# Section specific for Linux.
x86_64-pc-linux-gnu:
  src: "my_file_only_for_linux.bl"
  linker_opt: "-lc -lm" # link these only on linux

Additional Module Assets

• Unit tests implementation should be in module-name.test.bl file.
• Additional information should be in README.txt file, we might provide instruction how to compile module dependencies if there are any.
• Bundled platform specific libraries usually in folders with target triple names.

Libraries

TODO

Type Info

The full runtime type introspection is supported in BL. You can use typeinfo(<TYPE>) builtin function to get the runtime information about the TYPE. The typeinfo returns a pointer to the type metadata included in the final binary, so there is no additional unexpected overhead involved (except the binary might be slightly bigger). The type metadata information is added lazily into the binary only for required types.

This feature may be handy for automatic serialization of any kind, the good example is the print which gives you automatically pretty print of any passed value or type.

main :: fn () s32 {
    // yields pointer to TypeInfo constant structure
    info := typeinfo(s32);

    if info.kind == TypeKind.INT {
        // safe cast to *TypeInfoInt
        info_int := cast(*TypeInfoInt) info;

        print("bit_count = %\n", info_int.bit_count);

        if info_int.is_signed {
            print("signed\n");
        } else {
            print("unsigned\n");
        }
    }

    return 0;
};

Compiler Builtins

Variables

List of builtin variables set by compiler:

• IS_DEBUG Is bool immutable variable set to true when assembly is running in debug mode.
• IS_COMPTIME_RUN Is bool immutable variable set to true when assembly is executed in compile time.
• BLC_VER_MAJOR Compiler major version number.
• BLC_VER_MINOR Compiler minor version number.
• BLC_VER_PATCH Compiler patch version number.

Builtin Functions

sizeof(<expr>)

alignof(<expr>) #comptime

typeinfo(<expr>) #comptime

typeof(<expr>) #comptime

compiler_error(message: string_view) #comptime

compiler_warning(message: string_view) #comptime

/// Write string to the standard output (stdout). Format string can include format specifiers `%`
/// which are replaced by corresponding argument value passed in `args`. Value-string conversion is
/// done automatically, we can pass values of any type as an arguments, even structures or arrays.
///
/// The `print` function accepts C-like escape sequences as `\n`, `\t`, `\r`, etc.
///
/// Pointers to `Error` are dereferenced automatically; so the `print` function can print out errors
/// directly.
///
/// Count of printed bytes is returned.
print :: fn (format: string, args: ...) s32 {
    buf: [PRINT_MAX_LENGTH]u8 #noinit;
    w := _print_impl(buf, format, args);
    __os_write(OS_STDOUT, buf.ptr, auto w);
    return w;
}

## print

```
print :: fn (format: string, args: ...) s32
```

Write string to the standard output (stdout). Format string can include format specifiers `%`
which are replaced by corresponding argument value passed in `args`. Value-string conversion is
done automatically, we can pass values of any type as an arguments, even structures or arrays.

The `print` function accepts C-like escape sequences as `\n`, `\t`, `\r`, etc.

Pointers to `Error` are dereferenced automatically; so the `print` function can print out errors
directly.

Count of printed bytes is returned.

blc --help

Usage:
  blc [options] [source-files]

Alternative usage:
  blc [options] <-build> [build-arguments]
  blc [options] <-run> <source-file> [arguments] [forwarded-arguments]

Options:
  -build                   Invoke project build pipeline. All following arguments are forwarded into the build script and ignored by compiler itself. Use as '-build [arguments]'.
  -doc                     Generate documentation and exit.
  -opt=<debug|release-fast|release-small|release-with-debug-info>
                           Specify binary optimization mode (use 'debug' by default).
  -release                 Specify binary optimization mode to release. (same as '-opt=release-fast')
  -run                     Execute BL program using interpreter and exit. The compiler expects <source-file> after '-run' flag, the file name and all following command line arguments are passed into the executed program and ignored by compiler itself. Use as '-run <source-file> [arguments]'.
  -shared                  Compile shared library.
  -silent-run              Execute BL program using interpreter and exit. The compiler expects <source-file> after '-silent-run' flag, the file name and all following command line arguments are passed into the executed program and ignored by compiler itself. Use as '-silent-run <source-file> [arguments]'. This flag also suppress all compiler console outputs. Basically it combines '-run' and '--silent' into a single flag. This can be useful in case the compiler is called implicitly from UNIX shebang.
  --about                  Print compiler info and exit
  --assert=<default|on|off>
                           Set assert mode ('default' option sets assert 'on' in debug and 'off' in release mode).
  --ast-dump               Print AST.
  --configure              Generate configuration file and exit.
  --di=<dwarf|codeview>    Set debug info format.
  --doc-out-dir=<STRING>   Set documentation output directory. (Use 'out' in current working directory by default.)
  --emit-asm               Write assembly to file.
  --emit-llvm              Write LLVM-IR to file.
  --emit-mir               Write MIR to file.
  --error-limit=<N>        Set maximum reported error count.
  --full-path              Report full file paths.
  --help                   Print usage information and exit.
  --lex-dump               Print tokens.
  --no-analyze             Disable analyze pass, only parse and exit.
  --no-api                 Don't load internal API.
  --no-bin                 Don't write binary to disk.
  --no-color               Disable colored output.
  --no-jobs                Enable single-thread mode.
  --no-llvm                Disable LLVM back-end.
  --no-usage-check         Disable checking of unused symbols.
  --no-warning             Ignore all warnings.
  --override-config=<STRING>
                           Set custom path to the 'bl.yaml' configuration file.
  --reg-split=<off|on>     Enable/disable splitting of structures passed into the function by value into registers.
  --run-tests              Execute all unit tests in compile time.
  --silent                 Disable compiler console logging.
  --stats                  Print compilation statistics.
  --syntax-only            Check syntax and exit.
  --target-experimental    Enable experimental compilation targets.
  --target-host            Print current host target triple and exit.
  --target-supported       Print all supported targets and exit. (Cross compilation is not allowed yet!)
  --tests-minimal-output   Reduce compile-time tests (--run-tests) output (remove results section).
  --verbose                Enable verbose mode.
  --verify-llvm            Verify LLVM IR after generation.
  --version                Print compiler version and exit.
  --vmdbg-attach           Attach compile-time execution debugger.
  --vmdbg-break-on=<N>     Attach compile-time execution debugger and sets break point to the MIR instruction with <N> id.
  --where-is-api           Print path to API folder and exit.
  --work-dir=<STRING>      Set current working directory. Compiler use by default the current working directory to output all files.

#!/usr/local/bin/blc -silent-run

main :: fn () s32 {
    print("Hello!!!\n");
    return 0;
}

$ chmod +x main.bl
$ ./main.bl

my_function :: fn () {
    ptr: *s32 = null;
    @ptr = 10; // error
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    my_function();
    return 0;
}

$blc -run test.bl

Executing 'main' in compile time...
error: Dereferencing null pointer!

================================================================================
Obtained backtrace:
================================================================================
test.bl:3:5: Last called:
   2 |     ptr: *s32 = null;
>  3 |     @ptr = 10; // error
   4 | }

test.bl:8:5: Called from:
   7 |     debugbreak;
>  8 |     my_function();
   9 |     return 0;

my_function :: fn () {
    ptr: *s32 = null;
    @ptr = 10; // error
}

main :: fn () s32 {
    debugbreak; // break here
    my_function();
    return 0;
}

$blc --vmdbg-attach -run test.bl

Executing 'main' in compile time...

Hit breakpoint in assembly 'out'.

   6 | main :: fn () s32 {
>  7 |     debugbreak;
   8 |     my_function();

: h
  h, help                             = Show this help.
  q, quit                             = Stop debugging.
  n, next                             = Step to next instruction.
  c, continue                         = Continue execution.
  p, print                            = Print current instruction.
  bt, backtrace                       = Print current backtrace.
  vs=<on|off>, verbose-stack=<on|off> = Log stack operations.
  mir=<on|off>, mir-mode=<on|off>     = Enable/disable MIR instruction level debugging.

• Introduction
• Hello World
• The Main Function
• Compile & Run
• Hello Project
• Configuration
• Compilation
• How It Works
• Variables
• Syntax And Mutability
• Mutability Of Structure Members
• Initialization
• Local
• Global
• Usage Checks
• Shadowing
• Comptime Variables
• Types
• Fundamental Types
• Pointer Type
• Array Type
• String Type
• Slice
• Struct Type
• Union Type
• Any Type
• Enum Type
• Enum Flags Type
• Type Casting
• Type Decomposition
• Functions
• Function Arguments
• Return Value
• Anonymous Functions And Callbacks
• Function Overloading
• Polymorphic Functions
• Function Directives
• Comments
• Single-line Comments
• Multi-line Comments
• Documentation Comments
• Literals
• Simple Literals
• Integer Literals
• String Literals
• Operators
• Binary Operators
• Unary Operators
• Flow Control
• If Else
• Switch
• Loop
• Defer
• Code Structure
• Global Scope
• Named Scope
• Public Scope
• Private Scope
• Local Scope
• Using
• Modules
• List of module config entries
• Additional Module Assets
• Libraries
• Type Info
• Compiler Builtins
• Variables
• Builtin Functions
• Directives
• Documentation
• Compiler Usage
• Compiler Options
• Configuration
• Execution Status
• Script mode
• Unit Testing
• Compile-time Debugger